Many families agree that adolescents try their best to separate from their families and do as they please, but they are more sensitive to their parents’ opinions than they may seem. The adolescent brain reacts strongly to parental criticism or praise. These are the results of a study by a research group of psychologists and neuroscientists from Leiden University.
The study involved 63 adolescents from 12 to 18 years. During an MRI scan of their brains, they were shown compliments, neutral feedback or criticism of their personality that seemed to come from their parents. They would read comments on a screen such as: “Your father thinks you’re mean,” or “Your mother thinks you’re intelligent”
After each point of praise or criticism, the adolescents indicated their mood. Unsurprisingly, their mood improved after receiving a compliment and deteriorated after receiving a negative comment, particularly when this criticism did not match their self-image. Not only did the parental comments do something to the adolescents’ self-confidence, but the adolescent brain reacted very differently to compliments than to criticism, as the scans showed. Criticism activated regions of the brain that are involved in processing emotions and pain, regions that are also activated when people experience physical pain. Both criticism and compliments cause activity in areas of the brain that are related to social cognition, such as understanding other people’s emotions and intentions.
Pain
The researchers explained that what the results of the scans show is that criticism really does seem to hurt. This pain does not seem to be less in adolescents with a relatively more-positive self-image and who feel their parents are warmer.
Studies like these help to understand what parental compliments and criticism do to adolescents and to make parents aware of the impact of their words. In addition, this adds to the understanding of mental health problems in adolescents, such as depression, low self-esteem and sensitivity to rejection, which all play a leading role.
Children as young as three know the rules of equal sharing but if sharing involves a cost to the self, they only follow the rules when they are older, according to research published March 20 in the open access journal PLOS ONE by Craig Smith from the University of Michigan and colleagues from other institutions.
The authors note, “People who spend time with young children will know that they often favour themselves when sharing, but surprisingly they endorse equal sharing not just by other people but also in their own case. In our research, we were able to rule out a number of explanations for this early gap between word and deed.”
When the researchers gave 3-8-year-olds stickers they valued and asked them about sharing, children of all ages readily asserted that they themselves should share equally, and others should as well. However, when given the chance to actually share, children failed to follow the norms they endorsed until the ages of 7-8. In a second test, older children aged 7-8 correctly predicted that they would share equally, while 3-6-year-olds clearly stated that they would favour themselves while sharing; thus, children of all ages were accurate in predicting what they would do.
The study concludes that though younger children know the norm of equal sharing, the importance they attach to it increases with age. Adults therefore can’t expect too much from younger children when they are asked to share their precious possessions!
Since the outbreak of Covid-19, concern has been expressed in various countries regarding the increased sedentary behaviours of children. Too little time is spent being physically active and high levels of sedentary behaviour, especially screen time, are associated with poor health and academic performances for school-aged children.
An international report with recommendations designed to counteract this has been released by the Sedentary Behavior Research Network (SBRN), in partnership with the University of Prince Edward Island and the CHEO Research Institute.
The recommendations
A ‘healthy’ school day includes:
Breaking up periods of extended sedentary behaviour with both scheduled and unscheduled movement breaks
at least once every 30 minutes for ages 5 to 11 years
at least once every hour for ages 12 to 18 years
consider a variety of intensities and durations (e.g., standing, stretching breaks, moving to another classroom, active lessons, active breaks).
Incorporating different types of movement (e.g., light activities that require movement of any body parts, and moderate to vigorous activities that require greater physical effort) into homework whenever possible, and limiting sedentary homework to no more than 10 minutes per day, per grade level. For example, in Canada this means typically no more than 10 minutes per day in grade 1, or 60 minutes per day in grade 6.
Regardless of the location, school-related screen time should be meaningful, mentally or physically active, and serve a specific pedagogical purpose that enhances learning compared to alternative methods. When school-related screen time is warranted,
limit time on devices, especially for students 5 to 11 years of age;
take a device break at least once every 30 minutes;
discourage media-multitasking in the classroom and while doing homework;
avoid screen-based homework within an hour of bedtime.
Replacing sedentary learning activities with movement-based learning activities (including standing) and replacing screen-based learning activities with non-screen-based learning activities (e.g., outdoor lessons) can further support students’ health and wellbeing.
Common sense tells us that these are valid suggestions. It will be interesting to see how educators, families and other caregivers respond.
When you’re in the second year of your life, every day is one of discovery and new possibilities. These have to be explored immediately. At this age, waiting is not an option, especially as you are discovering that you are your own person who should be able to choose and do some things for yourself. Language becomes peppered with “no,” “mine,” “me do it.” This excitement is accompanied by emotions that have still to be mastered. Too often you become overwhelmed and meltdowns follow even the smallest thing.
Writing for The Conversation, Rochelle Matacz and Lynn Priddis report research that shows tantrums occur in 87% of 18— to 24-month-olds, 91% of 30 to 36-month-olds, and 59% of 42- to 48-month-olds—often on a daily basis. With these percentages, labelling toddlers as being in the ‘terrible twos’ might sound accurate but is not wholly fair. Such a derogatory label fails to grasp the huge developmental growth happening at this age. It also fails to celebrate the developing emotional life of a toddler, at once complex, multifaceted and exhilarating.
What’s going on?
In the second year, we see a huge surge in capacities coupled with lots of seeming inappropriate behaviours. At this age, children begin to establish independence while simultaneously needing to learn ways of coping with intense feelings such as fear, anger, frustration and sadness. Intense, uncontrolled feelings and defiance are normal at this age.
Although it is challenging stage, sensitive parenting plays an important part in social and emotional development during this time. One important component of responsive parenting is the ability to empathise with your young child; to understand that the child’s behaviour has meaning and is driven by feelings, thoughts, desires and intentions.
Trying to understand the world from the child’s point of view helps a parents anticipate, interpret and respond to the child’s behaviour in ways that build the child’s growing capacity to regulate and ultimately control their emotions.
Responding to a tantrum with anger or an attempt to stop the behaviour by raising one’s voice can frighten a child and this raises the distress already fuelling the meltdown.
Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are is a tribute to tantrums He gives the following Three guidelines for parents:
Be aware of your own responses
Tantrums can be emotionally activating for parents. Being aware and making sense of your own feelings will help you to respond sensitively to your child’s distress. When you realise that you are not managing your anger caused by the child’s meltdown, you become calmer and can better focus on the emotions experienced by the child.
Identify and validate your child’s difficult feelings
Young children need help from their parents to recognize that the feelings they are expressing through their behaviours are just that: feelings that will pass in time. They need help to name them, work out what is causing them and figure out what might help.
Search for underlying meaning
Remember not to take emotional outbursts personally. Viewing a tantrum as a means of communication helps parents consider the likely causes of a child’s distress and to think through possible solutions.
With consistent support, toddlers gradually learn to tolerate frustration, gain a sense of how to control their strong feelings and find words to express what is happening inside them.
The good news is that this stage does not last too long!
Sometimes it is really necessary that a child be prescribed antibiotics. Some, however, may develop some tummy problems during or after completing the course. Can probiotics help? Dr Christine Hurtado gives the following advice:
Antibiotics can kill both good and bad bacteria in your child’s gut. This may throw your child’s gut microbiome out of balance. The microbiome is composed of the microscopic organisms—bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites—that live in our bodies. That’s why it’s important to only use antibiotics when they’re really needed.
Signs that your child’s microbiome is off-balance include:
Diarrhea
Tummy cramps
Nausea
Gas
Vomiting
If your child’s gut microbiome is disrupted from antibiotics, your doctor may recommend boosting the probiotics in their diet.
Probiotics are made up of the good bacteria that live in our bodies. After your child has been on antibiotics, probiotics can help get the gut microbiome back to a healthy balance by putting beneficial bacteria back in. Studies also suggest that probiotics may help relieve the diarrhea, gas, and cramping caused by antibiotics.
There are hundreds of bacteria that are considered to be probiotics. A few of the most commonly used strains are Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Saccharomyces.
Many fermented foods have probiotics in them. Examples include:
Yoghurt (natural, unsweetened thick yoghurt)
Kefir (fermented in either water or milk)
Sauerkraut and pickles (raw and refrigerated – not pickled in vinegar)
Kimchi (made from fermented cabbage)
Tempeh and miso (made from fermented soybeans)
Buttermilk
Sourdough bread
You also may have heard of prebiotics. These foods or supplements contain complex carbohydrates, which can’t be digested. The carbs ferment in the digestive system, feeding the good bacteria in the gut and helping them grow and thrive. Prebiotics are like fertilizer for the microbiome.
Prebiotics are found in many foods, especially those with a high fibre content, like vegetables. Examples include:
Asparagus
Snow peas
Whole grains
Bananas
Onions
Soybeans
Garlic
Probiotics and prebiotics are also sold as supplements, in capsule, tablet, powder and liquid form. But keep in mind that these supplements are not controlled by food authorities before being sold and there aren’t any official guidelines on how much to take or for how long. Rather talk to your doctor before giving your child any supplement, including probiotics or prebiotics.
Probiotics are also found in kombucha, a carbonated drink made with fermented sweetened tea that has become a news item lately. But drinking kombucha can be risky for kids because it may contain alcohol. Children shouldn’t drink home-brewed kombucha because it may contain harmful bacteria. This is especially true if your child has a health condition that weakens their immune system. Ask your doctor if you have questions about kombucha.
Your child’s microbiome should recover on its own after taking antibiotics, as long as your child is eating healthy foods. You can add foods with prebiotics or probiotics to help get that balance back, too.
Worried about overdoing it? When you have prebiotics in your diet, the bacteria consume the amount they need to stay healthy and active and the rest passes through the digestive system into the stool. The same goes for probiotics. If you get too many, there’s nowhere for them to go, so they also pass into the stool.
Writing for ‘The Conversation’ from Australia, Nikolaj Travica comments that a staggering number of people suffer from an anxiety-related condition, with the largest increasing number being in the 15 – 24 age group.
The growing field of nutritional psychiatry focuses on the effects of foods and drinks on our mental health. Despite water constituting 60–80% of our bodies, it is often overlooked as a significant nutrient. In fact, the evidence shows water and hydration can play a role in preventing and managing the symptoms of anxiety.
While we know how important it is to drink water on a hot day to replenish supplies in our body, we might not be aware that we nourish our brains as well when we drink water.
Several years ago, a group of researchers undertook a review that focused on the various ways hydration impacts health. The results were promising.
Overall, negative emotions such as anger, hostility, confusion and tension as well as fatigue were found to increase with dehydration. One trial induced mild dehydration and found increased reports of tension or anxiety and fatigue in participants.
Researchers have also found people who usually drink lots of water feel less calm, less content, and more tense when their water intake drops. When researchers increased the participants’ water intake, people in the study felt more happiness, no matter how much water they normally drank.
Another large study found people who drink five cups or more of water per day were at lower risk of depression and anxiety. In comparison, drinking less than two cups per day doubles the risk. This link was less noticeable for anxiety alone (although feelings of depression and anxiety often influence each other).
More recently, researchers found water with electrolytes may prevent anxiety more than plain water, but it was noted that the placebo effect may explain this connection as study participants were aware when they were given the electrolyte drink. Dehydration might also affect how well we sleep. Poor sleep can exacerbate feelings of anxiety.
The link between dehydration and anxiety is also observed in children, who are a group at risk of dehydration.
Water and the brain
Almost every bodily function relies on water. Because 75% of brain tissue is water, dehydration reduces energy production in the brain and can change brain structure, causing the brain to slow down and not function properly. If water levels are too low, the brain shows signs of working harder to complete tasks.
Our cells recognize a state of dehydration as a threat to survival, leading to a state of anxiety. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger between brain cells) that stabilizes our mood and regulates emotions. During dehydration, we struggle to get the chemicals required to produce serotonin into our brain.
Being just half a litre dehydrated may also increase the stress hormone cortisol, which has been associated with a range of mental disorders, including anxiety.
So, based on what is currently known and emerging evidence, there is plenty of reason to make sure you and the children in your care drink sufficient water.
It is, however, important to note there are a wide range of factors that affect an individual’s level of anxiety. No single thing is likely to be responsible for completely resolving those feelings. This is particularly true in adults and children who experience significant anxiety, where simply drinking more water is unlikely to be helpful on its own.
